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Neidan, or internal alchemy (), is an array of esoteric doctrines and physical, mental, and spiritual practices that Taoist initiates use to prolong life and create an immortal spiritual body that would survive after death. (2025). 9789004112087, Brill. ISBN 9789004112087 Also known as Jindan (金丹 "golden elixir"), inner alchemy combines theories derived from Chinese alchemy ( waidan 外丹), correlative cosmology (including the Five Phases), the Ba gua of the Yijing, and medical theory, with techniques of Taoist meditation, daoyin gymnastics, and sexual hygiene.(Baldrian-Hussein 2008, 762)
In neidan, the human body becomes a cauldron (or "ding") in which the Three Treasures of Jing ("Essence"), Qi ("Breath") and Shen ("Spirit") are cultivated for the purpose of improving physical, emotional and mental health, and ultimately returning to the primordial unity of the Tao, i.e., attaining Taoist Immortality. It is believed the Xiuzhen Tu is such a cultivation map. In China, it is an important form of practice for most schools of Taoism.
Traditional Chinese medical Chinese alchemy texts and sources ordinarily call neidan the jīndān dào 金丹道 or Way of the Golden Elixir. In Modern Standard Chinese usage, the term nèidān shù 內丹術 (with "art; skill; technique; method") refers generally to internal alchemical practices for longevity by maintaining good health, and the prevention of pain and suffering.
The date for the earliest use of the term neidan is uncertain. 內丹 or neidan had been mentioned in 灵剑子 by Xu Xun 许逊 in Jin dynasty (266–420), but on the other hand Arthur Waley proposed that it was first recorded in the 559 vow taken by Tiantai Buddhist patriarch Nanyue Huisi praying to successfully make an elixir that would keep him alive until the coming of Maitreya.(Waley 1930: 14) Many scholars agreed, including Joseph Needham and Lu Gwei-djen who translated Huisi's vow to live as an ascetic in the mountains:
I am seeking for the longevity in order to defend the Faith, not in order to enjoy worldly happiness. I pray that all the saints and sages will come to my help, so that I may get some good magic mushrooms zhi, and numinous elixirs shendan, enabling me to cure all illnesses and to stop both hunger and thirst. In this way I shall be able to practice continually the way of the Sutras and to engage in the several forms of meditations. I shall hope to find a peaceful dwelling in the depths of the mountains, with enough numinous elixirs and medicine to carry out my plans. Thus, by the aids of external elixirs waidan I shall be able to cultivate the elixir within neidan.(Needham and Lu, 1983: 140)Others believed that neidan first occurred in the biographies of Deng Yuzhi 鄧郁之 (fl. 483–493) and Su Yuanming 蘇元明 (fl. ). However, the authenticity of the relevant passages mentioned above is doubtful.(Baldrian-Hussein 1989: 164–171 "pseudo-historical sources")
The term neidan was seldom used throughout the late Tang dynasty (618–907) and Five dynasties (907–960) period, and only became widespread around the beginning of the Song dynasty (960–1279) period, when neidan evolved into a highly complex system in both its theoretical and practical aspects.(Baldrian-Hussein 2008: 763) Tang texts described internal alchemical practices with the words fúyào 服藥 "take drug/medicine" and chángshēng 長生 "long life, longevity; (Taoism) eternal life".(Baldrian-Hussein 1989: 170) Liu Xiyue's 劉希岳 988 Taixuan langranzi jindao shi 太玄朗然子進道詩 (Master Taixuan Langran's Poems on Advancing in the Tao) has the earliest datable mention of the terms neidan and waidan.(Baldrian-Hussein 1989: 174, 178, 180) The Yunji Qiqian Taoist anthology mentions the term neidan.(Baldrian-Hussein 1989: 178)
Early texts that mention neidan define it as synonymous or similar with some qi circulation techniques: Cultivation and Transmutation ( xiulian 修煉), Embryonic Breathing ( taixi 胎息), the Cyclical Elixir ( huandan 還丹), the Golden Elixir ( jindan 金丹), the Great Elixir ( dadan 大丹), the Interior and Exterior Medicines ( nei/waiyao 内外藥), the Inner and Outer Counterparts ( nei/waixiang 内外象), and the Yin Elixir and Yang Elixir ( yindan 陰丹 and yangdan 陽丹).(Baldrian-Hussein 1989: 179–186)
Based upon the textual evidence, Farzeen Baldrian-Hussein concludes that in early texts, neidan refers to a specific technique, and by Song Emperor Zhenzong's reign (997–1022), the term designates a group of techniques, expressed in specific alchemical language.(Baldrian-Hussein 1989: 187)
It is sometimes transliterated using the older Wade–Giles system as Neitan in literature on western Alchemy.Nozedar, Adele. (2025). 9781435161818, Sterling Publishing Company, Incorporated. ISBN 9781435161818
Neidan shares a significant portion of its notions and methods with classical Chinese medicine, fangshi and with other bodies of practices, such as meditation and the methods for "nourishing life" ( yangsheng). What distinguishes alchemy from these related traditions is its unique view of the elixir as a material or immaterial entity that represents the original state of being and the attainment of that state. The neidan tradition of internal alchemy is practiced by working with the energies that were already present in the human body as opposed to using natural substances, medicines or elixirs, from outside of the body. The Shangqing School of Taoism played an important role in the emergence of neidan alchemy, after using Waidan mainly as a meditative practice, and therefore turning it from an external to an internal art.
Healing practices such as acupuncture, Tui na, Cupping therapy and herbal medicines are believed to open up the qi meridians throughout the body so that the qi can flow freely. Keeping qi in balance and flowing throughout the body promotes health; imbalance can lead to sickness.
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